MANAGING LONG-TERM HEALTH CARE: CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD)

Managing Long-Term Health Care: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Scenario Analysis

The case scenario involves a 65 year old man called Mick Harris who was diagnosed with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) 15 year ago. Although he stopped smoking (one of the major causes of COPD) 3 years ago, he has also been diagnosed with pulmonary fibrosis and mild osteoarthritis to both knees. Socially, Mick has a wife who is a receptionist and they have two adult children living locally, one of whom is 6 month pregnant. Some of the drugs that Mick has been using include steroids, bronchi-dilators, and intravenous antibiotics. Some of current symptoms that Mike is facing from the condition include general body weakness, breathlessness, and loss of weight. The condition has affected Micks family in different ways. The wife is depressed since Mick no longer wants to go back to hospital and prefers staying home to die around his family. The wife does not know how to discuss the issue with the entire family. Moreover, the family is financially challenged since Mick’s wife works as a receptionist while mick has not been able to work for several years. Additionally, the family was not benefitting from Social services although the family has started getting caregivers assistance and community Matron is expected to visit Mick.

Introduction

Chronic Obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a condition that affects the lungs and leads to eventual narrowing of the airways. This leads to limited passage of air into the lungs, which results in dyspnea or shortness of breath. The limited airflow condition is irreversible and worsens over time. This is due to floppiness of the air sacs. Common conditions characterized as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease (COPD) include emphysema and bronchitis. This paper will make use of Mike case to discuss the pathophysiology of COPD and contributory causes. Provide rationale for appropriate nursing, inter-professional and interagency interventions, discuss ways to enable patient prevent complications associated with COPD, facilitate palliative treatment and prevent unplanned admissions. Additionally, the essay will discuss the effects and risks of the drugs administered, assess practice guidance and national frameworks that promote best practice, the legal, ethical, political and economic context of COPD care in the UK.

The Pathophysiology of COPD and Contributory Causes

In addition to being one of the major causes of death in UK, COPD leads to reduced quality of life since it causes functional impairment and eventual loss of independence. COPD pathophysiology is used in reference to functional alteration in the lungs resulting as the disease progresses. COPD affects the functionality of the lungs by causing inflammatory cells such as T-lymphocytes, and neutrophils to accumulate along the airways causing obstruction and airflow limitation. The inflammatory cell trigger influx of inflammatory mediator aimed at eliminating the irritants or foreign debris. However, continuous exposure to foreign debris such as smoke results in unrelenting inflammatory response changing the physiology and structure of the lungs, which worsens the condition. The changes include constriction of airways, excessive mucus production, dysfunction of cilia resulting in obstruction of airways characterised by chronic cough, dyspnea and wheezing. Mucus accumulates on the airway causing bacteria to grow and multiply on the airway, which eventually cause diverticula along the bronchial tree. Additionally the bacteria infect the lungs resulting in COPD exacerbation (Tsoumakidou, & Siafakas 2006).

Although the major cause of COPD is tobacco smoking, there are other causes, most of which are preventable. Air pollution, second-hand smoke and occupation causes such as exposure to coal, cotton and grain, are other major contributors of COPD cases. Therefore, COPD can be prevented through lifestyle change. Intervention programs should thus involve the community to prevent the disease in addition to treating the already infected individuals (Kosmala-Anderson, Wallace, & Turner 2010).

Appropriate Nursing and Inter-professional and Inter-Agency Interventions

COPD is one of the most common causes of chronic morbidity and mortality, which leads to considerable economic and social burden worldwide. In UK, about 1 million people are diagnosed with COPD while a large number is believed to have the condition but remains undiagnosed (Holmes, 2011). However, most healthcare providers underestimate the level of morbidity resulting from COPD, which has led to inadequate intervention programs in regions such as UK. (Kosmala-Anderson, Wallace, & Turner 2010).

COPD is caused by smoking and is thus preventable. Effective treatment and management of COPD should involve appropriate inter-professional and inter-agency interventions. This is because the high mobility and mortality resulting from COPD results in social and economic burdens that affecting different fields. To prevent the escalation of the burden measures such as promoting prevention of COPD in the society through education of the public should be enhanced. The programs should involve professions from different fields such as nurses, physicians, clinicians and social workers (Kara 2005).

Preventing Complications Associated With COPD

COPD leads to numerous complication the major one being difficulty in breathing. However, patients with COPD can live a less problematic life if the complications associated with COPD are minimised or eliminated. Like indicated in the case scenario, smoking is the predominant risk factor for COPD and the associated complications. Therefore, the major intervention program for patients with COPD should entail discontinuing smoking. This will reduce the rate of decline of the lung function and reduce exacerbations. Early detection of COPD is crucial and it can play a major role in determining the course of the disease. Since smoke is the major cause of complications, the intervention should involve removal of air pollutants within the patient’s vicinity. Avoiding smoking and pollutants prevents respiratory complications. To enable Mike prevent complications associated with COPD the caregivers should encourage the family members to ensure that the home environment is hygienic and free from pollutants that intensify COPD.

According to Wakabayashi, Motegi, Yamada, Ishii, Jones, Hyland, Gemmma and Kida (2011), older patients with COPD, like Mike, require to be educated on their condition to enhance self-management. When the patients are informed on their condition and what is required of them, they are able to cope better. Since other conditions have resulted, the intervention program should involve treatment and management of osteoarthritis through therapies that ease pain and inflammation since the condition is incurable. The care should also include treatment of pulmonary fibrosis, which could have been caused by excessive inflammation of the airways

Preventing Unplanned Hospital Admissions Due To a Crisis

Advanced stages of COPD are characterised by unrelenting symptoms with frequent acute exacerbations. According to Wakabayashi, Motegi, Yamada, Ishii, Jones, Hyland, Gemmma and Kida (2011), “Providing patients with planned, comprehensive, self-management program has been shown to contribute to improvement in knowledge and adherence and to reduce the rate of hospitalization among patients with COPD” (426). Therefore, the caregivers should understand the health status of the patients to enable them meet their information needs. The patients should be informed of the situations to avoid and their nutritional and exercise requirements to enable them deal with the condition. (Yohannes, Willgoss, Baldwin, & Connolly 2010). To enable Mike prevent unplanned hospital admissions due to a crisis the caregivers should ensure that Mike and his wife understand the basic ways to deal with symptoms related or unrelated OCPD that are affecting Mike. Moreover, the caregivers should educate the family on the appropriate nutrition and other measures that can be used to enable Mike deal with his condition.

Facilitating Palliative Treatment for COPD

Palliative care entails medical care given to patients by social workers, nurses and physicians to relief pain or sooth the symptoms of the disease. Like in case of mike, patients with COPD exhibit symptoms such as anxiety, painful breathing, and loss of weight, hopelessness and depression. According to Holmes (2011), multidisciplinary palliative care teams should attend patients in the late stages of COPD as well as their families. This is because the actual end stage of COPD cannot be easily detected. Palliative care for COPD patients should aim at relieving pain and other uncomfortable feelings, offering emotional support to the patient and the family improve appetite and make medical decisions. Moreover, the caregivers should focus on improving the personal hygiene conditions, which can be done by community social workers (Nordtug, Krokstad, & Holen 2011) like in the case of Mike. The palliative caregivers should conduct frequent checks to assess the level of airflow obstruction and the systemic consequences. This will enable them offer appropriate care and relieve the patients when necessary. To facilitate palliative treatment care for Mike, the caregivers should provide holistic care that should include care and treatment of osteoarthritis and pulmonary fibrosis, disease management, psychological care, social care and spiritual assistance.

Prednisolone is a form of corticosteroid medication, which has similar effects as those of the hormones in a person’s adrenal glands. These serve to suppress both inflammation and immunity, where one’s white blood cells attack their body tissues. In Mick’s COPD case, this medicine works the same way it does in asthma patients, to reduce conditions resulting from inflammation. The side effects and risks of this medicine depend on the amount of dosage taken. Generally, this results in swelling of limbs, as body fluid is retained in tissues, it also causes unstable moods, increases high blood pressure, and leads to weight gain in the neck, abdomen, and back of the neck (Hanania, 2011).

Augmentin is an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections. Its side effects are also dependent on the amount of time a person uses the medicine, and the dosage taken. The mild effects of this drug include diarrhoea, indigestion, or vomiting, and oral thrush, including soreness of the mouth and tongue. Severe effects include fever, rashes, itchiness of skin, and sore throats. Paracetamol is the most common painkiller with rare side effects. These side effects include rashes, a drop in blood pressure; a condition known as hypotension, and damage of liver and kidney if medication is prolonged or in case of overdose. On rare cases, paracetamol results in blood disorders such as leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. On the other hand, Salbutamol is a drug that helps in relieving symptoms similar to those of Asthma, as it makes the airways to dilate. The risks and side effects include muscle cramps, low levels of Potassium in blood, flushing, and headaches. This drug does not result in severe side effects, apart from itching and dizziness (Hanania, 2011).

There are different levels of medicines management, which the concerned parties should observe and adhere to. From the perspective of the patient, they should know the purpose of the prescription given to them. Knowing when to take the medicine and the right dosage is necessary to avoid overdose or under dose of medicine, which is lethal to one’s recovery process. Additionally, a patient must be knowledgeable about the side effects of the prescribed medicines in order to avoid unnecessary panicking (Allegra & Blasi, 2000). Finally, the patient must be familiar with the kind of tests performed on them, and be able to understand their test results. These are the medicine management basics, which patients need to apply, for an uninterrupted recovery process. Medicine management also applies to primary healthcare level as well as the hospital level. This mainly serves to ensure that patients are given the correct prescriptions as well as the recording of a patient’s past medical history. This way, patients will be given accurate prescriptions, in accordance to their health need (Hanania, 2011).

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) results in a number of detrimental effects on the patient’s life, thus affecting their family too. Apart from the physical health effects, COPD also affects the patient and their families psychologically, additionally altering the patient’s social relationships, work, as well as the future. All these effects come in the negative light to both the patient and their family. Being an elderly person, Mick is prone to experience these effects at a higher level, and these will in turn affect his family in one way or another (Margereson, 2009).

According to Boyle (2009), there are limited research findings to show the effects of COPD on families of the patients, unlike the case of cancer, diabetes, heart disease, or dementia, which have numerous research data. However, researchers have found that dissatisfaction with life is a major effect of most COPD patients. These also become alienated and experience less social interactions. The physical disability COPD patients experience also hinders them from engaging in different activities, which require active body movements. This includes taking on jobs to earn a living, as most COPD patients are confined to their beds and homes. This to a bigger extent equally affects their mental health, as most COPD patients register a lower mental status. For the chronically ill husbands suffering from COPD, it is their wives mainly take care of them at home. Therefore, these wives tend to exhibit similar lowering in morale as the case with their ill husbands. The wives are most likely to experience a rather poor health, which emanates from the distress of taking care of a chronically ill husband (Boyle, 2009).

In the case of Mick, the COPD takes toll on him psychologically, as he loses interest in living, and thinks he might die anytime soon. This is a result of psychological distress, which he experiences, coupled with depression, and anxiety. Mick’s family has to be part of these challenges as the society expects chronically ill patients to be cared for by their families. Mick has therefore, puts a psychological strain to his family as they are expected to keenly monitor him in case of changes in his health, or more exacerbation. This puts Mick’s family in an uncertainty state, and emotional instability, as they are not sure of what to expect the next minute (Boyle, 2009).

Mick lost his work because of COPD, which has disabled him. This has deprived him his financial independence as he now depends on his wife for family provision. This in return results in lowering of his self-esteem and ego, as most men pride in being their family’s breadwinners. Such further heightens the level of his mental distress. Social relationships are all gone for Mick. Being confined to bed, he cannot meet and converse with his friends, and he has no workmates either. Additionally, Mick’s future is bleak, as he foresees death. From this, it is evident that COPD is a disheartening condition that leads to meaninglessness of life, especially in the chronic stages.

The Care Quality Commission (CQC) has been responsible for the identification of the best ways to improve the quality of care for the COPD patients in England. This is through the control of health services, in addition to social services provided to adults by the National Health Services (NHS), private health companies, local authorities, including the voluntary organizations. In UK, the NHS has collaborated with different stakeholders, including COPD patients, in order to identify ways through which an improvement in quality of healthcare can be achieved in the case of COPD (“National Health Services” 2011).

To ensure quality care of COPD patients, most clinicians have adopted a care model that comprises different stages in the prevention and management of COPD. First is ways of preventing COPD. This is mostly through encouraging people not to smoke or inhale dangerous gases and smoke, which can lead to lung infection. Secondly, early diagnosis of COPD is encouraged, to avoid the disease getting into the chronic stage, which becomes complex. If one is diagnosed with COPD, early management of the disease is important to curb its adverse effects. Support and care for the COPD patients experiencing acute exacerbations is necessary to prolong life, as well as care and support at the end of life for patients with chronic OCPD (“National Health Services” 2011).

In order to endorse this care model, NHS has developed a national strategy to improve quality of care for COPD patients. The main objectives of NHS in COPD strategy were published in July 2011 and these aim at care improvement. First is ensuring that all communities have good respiratory health. To achieve this, dissemination of information to people is necessary for people to appreciate better respiratory health. Third is the prevention of more premature deaths due to COPD, by endorsing the clinical care model of early diagnosis and management of COPD. Provision of a conducive care environment for COPD patient until their death will improve their quality of life. Finally is ensuring that COPD patients receive effective treatment to help in their recovery (“National Health Services” 2011).

People living with long-term conditions should still be considered as members of the society, even though their participation in societal activities is limited. As long as they still live, they are normal human beings, entitled to same human rights as everyone else. In the ethical context of people with long-term conditions, the virtue of justice need to be upheld by the people involved with the patients (Lloyd & Heller 2011). These patients should continue to experience a society where they are treated fairly just as the way they were treated before they got sick. Economically, even though most patients with long-term conditions plunge in financial dependence, they deserve to be cared and provided for by their families. Their wealth, which they had accumulated before getting sick should still be in their ownership unless they willingfully transfer this to different parties (George, Whitehouse & Duquenoy, 2012). Therefore, their proper share of resources and wealth must be guaranteed. Politically, the patients are still entitled to political rights such as participation in elections and voicing their concerns to political authorities. These must therefore, not be denied these rights. People living with long-term conditions are as well legally entitled to justice. The legal system in society must not discriminate against these people in their quest for justice, on the grounds of their health conditions. Generally, these people should be given a chance to live and bring in their positive contribution in society, no matter how small it might be. They should feel appreciated and of value in their local communities despite their condition (George, Whitehouse & Duquenoy, 2012).

Conclusively, this case scenario has been informative in the understanding of care and management of people with long-term health conditions, as this has been addressed in a practical manner. With special attention to COPD, this scenario has offered an in-depth insight in the interventions used in managing such long-term conditions. Additionally, it has become evident that families with people living with long-term conditions are equally affected psychologically, emotionally, or economically, yet this is hard to notice. However, best practice in healthcare provision is essential for the alleviation of deaths caused by OCPD and other long-term illnesses, as well as severe effects of such conditions. People living with long-term conditions can still live a satisfying life in society if their local communities consider them as part of society by granting them their rights and ensuring that their care still embraces legal, political, economic, and ethical contexts. This way, the affected people will live a fulfilling life, as well as prolong their life, since this reduces the alienation, which most of them face.

Works Cited

Iley, K 2012, ‘Improving palliative care for patients with COPD’, Nursing Standard, 26, 37, pp. 40-46, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Kara, M 2005, ‘Preparing Nurses for the Global Pandemic of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease’, Journal Of Nursing Scholarship, 37, 2, pp. 127-133, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Kosmala-Anderson, J, Wallace, L, & Turner, A 2010, ‘Confidence matters: A Self-Determination Theory study of factors determining engagement in self-management support practices of UK clinicians’, Psychology, Health & Medicine, 15, 4, pp. 478-491, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Nordtug, B, Krokstad, S, & Holen, A 2011, ‘Personality features, caring burden and mental health of cohabitants of partners with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or dementia’, Aging & Mental Health, 15, 3, pp. 318-326, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Scullion, J, & Holmes, S 2011, ‘Palliative care in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease’, Nursing Older People, 23, 4, pp. 32-39, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Tsoumakidou, M, & Siafakas, N 2006, ‘Novel insights into the aetiology and pathophysiology of increased airway inflammation during COPD exacerbations’, Respiratory Research, 7, pp. 80-10, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Wakabayashi, R, Motegi, T, Yamada, K, Ishii, T, Jones, R, Hyland, M, Gemma, A, & Kida, K 2011, ‘Efficient integrated education for older patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease using the Lung Information Needs Questionnaire’, Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 11, 4, pp. 422-430, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

Yohannes, A, Willgoss, T, Baldwin, R, & Connolly, M 2010, ‘Depression and anxiety in chronic heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevalence, relevance, clinical implications and management principles’, International Journal Of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 12, pp. 1209-1221, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 9 January 2013.

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Combating Prostate Cancer in the African American Community

Combating Prostate Cancer in the African American Community

Introduction

In the U.S, cancer is the second leading cause of death among men. Many people are frequently diagnosed with cancer. Prostate cancer among men is at a high rate, and is the second leading cause of deaths among men in the U.S. Even though the real cause of increased rate of prostate cancer among the African black has not been well identified, it is important that African American men know the facts about the disease and seek medical attention to help them reduce the prevalence.

Prevalence of prostate cancer

Statistics on the African Americans men suffering from cancer is alarming. In the US, the rate of African Americans diagnosed is high compared to other ethnic communities. Africa Americans diagnosed with cancer in 2009 were approximated at 27,130. It is also estimated that 3,690 African Americans men died of prostate cancer in 2009 (American Cancer Society para. 3). When compared to their white counterparts, African American women are 2.4 times more likely to succumb to cancer. Even though efforts have been done to ensure that this rate is reduced, the prostate specific antigen screening has remained highly controversial, and has not yet been proven effective through randomized clinical trials (Jones, Steeves and Ishan 189). Various repercussions are associated with prostate cancer, hence need for urgent prevention measures.

Effects of prostate cancer

Some of the effects of prostate cancer include: it produces emotional and physical effects to the sufferers. Men suffering from prostate cancer usually feel embarrassed because of the stigma and uncertainties that are associated with the disease. The society views the disease as embarrassing and therefore, many men are not willing to come out and go for screening. Some of the myths about prostrate cancer are symptomatic because of the method that is used in its screening, as a tube is inserted in the rectum to collect saliva that is used for testing. Therefore, many people are against this and it deters them to go for screening. Furthermore, the only way that it is treated is through orchiectomy (Arras-Boyd, Boyd, and Kay 16). Additionally, there are several stigmas that men who are diagnosed with cancer go through. These include having problems with incontinence and becoming impotence. Many men believe that once they are diagnosed with the disease, they will develop sexual dysfunction and therefore, they will lose their ability to erect and engage in sexual intercourse. Therefore, these have been some of the obstacles that have prevented many men, especially the African Americans men from seeking help and going for the cancer screening. Regardless of this, efforts should be done to help prevent the disease among other African Americans men.

Prevention strategies

According to Mayo, there are no proven strategies that have been advanced, which are able to help reduce the risk of prostate cancer (para. 2). However, there are many ways that the risk of cancer can be prevented.

Feeding of healthy diet

Many doctors recommend that people at risk or those with interest in preventing prostate cancer should feed on good healthy diets. The diet that is usually recommended should be of low levels of fat and include many fruits and vegetables. This combination helps to save men at risk of suffering from cancer (Oliver 74). The changing lifestyles and food preferences have contributed to the high number of African Americans men suffering from prostrates cancer. Therefore, they have the obligation to ensure that they avoid such diets not recommended by the health practitioners. A low fat diet food should always be selected. These foods with low levels of fats and calories may include meats, fruits, nuts and dairy products such as cheese and milk. This is the best strategy to ensure that the health of the men is maintained, and it helps them to prevent risks associated with cancer (Tataw and Olugbemiga 44). It is also recommended that people eat more greens compared to animal products on their daily basis. Research has revealed that there are many risks involved in taking animal products because they have higher levels of fats compared to green plants. It is also advisable to use olive oil while cooking food to reduce the amount of fats in the diets.

Drinking of alcohol

Even though few studies have linked prostate cancer with alcohol drinking, there is a high potential that this disease is contributed by high levels of alcohol intake. Many cases of men suffering from the disease take alcohol. It is therefore advisable for men drinking alcohol to reduce their daily intake to reduce the risk of contracting cancer.

Maintaining a healthy weight

Men who have a body mass index of 30 or higher than this are considered to be obese (Oliver 74). Obesity has also been linked to prostate cancer. Being obese increases the risk of prostate cancer. Therefore, any man who is obese should work hard to reduce weight. Those with normal weight should also work hard to maintain their weight to avoid becoming obese. Weight can be regulated by eating balanced diets and engaging in physical exercise every day. This will ensure that the weight is reduced and it will help to reduce the risk of African Americans from the risk of becoming obese and reduce the risk of suffering from prostate cancer.

Exercises

Various studies have revealed that men who engage in frequent exercises have low risk of suffering from cancer. However, some studies have disagreed with this fact. Body exercise is essential in maintaining weight and helping weight loss, which is associated with cancer.

Family and friend involvement

In the decision-making process concerning screening, family and friends play a key role. Family members and friends can be of great assistance in helping men seek medical treatment. The most important step of action men at risk need to do is to go for screening. However, many African Americans men may not find it easy to go for these screenings. Therefore, it becomes imperative for the family and friends to assist in advising such men to seek earlier cancer screening to enable them know their statuses early. Men at high risk of testing positive in prostate cancer are usually aged more than forty years and usually have families that can motivate and encourage them (Rivers et al 106). Many men trust their family members and therefore, they are the right people to encourage them to seek medical attention. The fact that friends and family members place their interest related to health issues at the forefront, they are likely to push them to seek medical attention. Therefore, this is one of the strategies that can help in preventing the high prevalence of cancer among African American men. They will be compelled to go for screening and be advised on the best ways to live to ensure that they do not get the disease.

Trust in health care provider

One of the challenges that have marred successful fight against increased rate of prostrates cancer among the American African men is lack of confident in the health care providers and the screening activities. Therefore, to ensure that this disease is prevented, efforts are required to ensure that the level of confidence in screening activities is improved. This will help create confidence among the African Americans people, and this will enable many of them to seek screening services to enhance their heath. Health decision is also based on the relationship between the health providers and the patients. If the rapport between health providers and the patients is improved, many men in the U.S will go for screening, and this will help them to know their statuses and take necessary measures to prevent and control the disease (Nelson, Balkand and Roth 1052). Some studies have suggested that race has been one of the major factors that have hindered positive relationships between the African Americans and the whites. Therefore, men from African Americans race may have been discouraged to seek medical attentions due to the racial discrimination. Therefore, this impediment needs to be corrected to ensure that African American men are prevented from the risk of contracting cancer.

Knowing a friend or family member with prostate cancer

Knowing a friend who is suffering from prostate cancer is one of the ways of impacting decision making concerning screening. Men can prevent the risk of prostate cancer by learning from their closest family members and the friends suffering from cancer. These friends are very crucial in compelling other American Africa men to make decision to go for screening. The friends can help by advising them about the importance of seeking earlier medical attentions. Screening can help prevent many men from suffering from prostate cancer. These survivors are normally perceived as credible and compelling sources of information that groups of people could accommodate and understand. People usually know them and perceive that what they say is truth, and therefore, they are more likely to follow and abide by what comes from these people. People who do not talk about prostate cancer or even know about it would therefore get an opportunity to ask questions and receive further clarification. Therefore, they foster information sharing and discussion as they allow and explain to the people about the risk, symptoms and treatment options available concerning cancer. Therefore, use of cancer survivor reinforces the need for many men to talk about cancer and be more open about cancer, enabling them to make decision to go for screening (Wray 37).

Annual screening

As the best way to ensure that cancer is prevented, screening should be conducted on annual basis on the African American men who are over 45 years, because they are at high risk of being affected by cancer. This screening will go an extra mile in preventing the rate of cancer cases among this category of people. Such programs would enable those people with high risk for undetected prostate cancer to be identified and be provided with the necessary help (Rita, Boyd and Kay 116).

Campaigns

Campaigns are very essential in reaching out to African American men, and creating awareness and educating them on the reasons why they need to be fully involved in ensuring that they keep healthy and prevent cancer. There are various causes of cancer, such as smoking and feeding on bad diets. This information should be packaged well and passed to men to help them change their behaviors (Chan, 195). These messages can be transmitted through various mediums. These channels include churches, central locations such as drug stores, words of mouth from peers, sports and commercial events, televisions, billboards, barbershops, dances, bars and radios among many others. These venues can help in creating awareness about the effects of cancer and the best ways to prevent the disease. Other avenue of transmitting this message is use of cancer survivors. These survivors can talk to the African Americans. These people will be motivated to take action and this strategy will help in reducing the rate of cancer prevalence among the African Americans in the U.S.

Use of focus groups

Focus groups are also very important strategies that can be used to ensure that cancer is prevented in the African American people. This platform helps to bring men together to discuss various aspects that concern cancer. Through such discussions, they will be able to get information and be motivated to go for screening, and this is likely to help reduce the prevalence of cancer among them (Cathy, Arlene, Marlene and Baer 967). This will change the perception of the African American men about going for cancer screening. Therefore, this is one of the important strategies that if well utilized; it can help to prevent cancer prevalence among the African American men. The men will be motivated to keep good health of their bodies and in the process they will help in reduction of cancer prevalence.

Community members

Community members are very important Stakeholders in creating awareness and providing support in prevention initiatives aimed at reducing the increased rate of cancer among African Americans men. The community is very essential in helping to create awareness and compelling men to go for the cancer screening. Community has a greater advantage and authority to compel men to seek for screening. Furthermore, community members may come together and contribute funds and other needed resources to help men to go for screening and know their status. Besides, these resources can be used to provide medical attention for those men diagnosed with prostate cancer during the early stages or phases. Such initiatives will be of greater assistance in helping to reduce the prevalence of cancer among the American Africa people (Cathy, Arlene, Marlene and Baer 972).

Cultural competence prevention

One of the challenges that have made it hard for many African Americans men not to seek for medical treatment and go for prostate cancer screening is due to cultural beliefs and stigmatization by the members of the society. The screening of cancer entails insertion of a tube in the rectum of a man to get saliva. Many of these men are opposed to such practices and therefore, this deters them from going for such screening. Other stigmas concerned with going for screening is the perceived sexual dysfunction when they are proved that that are cancer positive (Cathy, Arlene, Marlene and Baer 967). The stigma has therefore instilled fear in many of them and this has deterred them from seeking for screening services. Therefore, it is important for the campaigns to provide cultural designed messages that can help demystifying these allegations and believes. This demystification will go miles ahead in changing their perceptions about the screenings and many of them will have to take a step ahead to go for screening. This will help to greater heights in reducing or preventing the increased rates of prostate cancer among the African Americans.

Mandatory screening

The government should make it a law to ensure that all men who reach a certain age are screened. This will ensure that many men go for screening and this will go miles away in preventing cancer cases among the African Americans (Chan 195). Many people may be willing to go for the screening, but because of lack of money, they are not able to go for screening to know their health status. Therefore, this contributes a lot to the increased rates of cases of cancer among the African Americans (Cathy, Arlene, Marlene and Baer 967). There should also be referral even if the individual has no financial qualification. A free emergency in emergency rooms is also another way of ensuring that many men go for these screening. Other measures that can be relied upon to ensure that many African Americans are brought into this category is by reducing the taxes or introduction of tax breaks to those facilities that provide free screening services to the clients. These measures will go miles away in preventing cases of cancer (Tataw and Olugbemiga 44).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is true that prostate cancer is increasing at higher rate among the African American men. This coincides with the fact that cancer is the second killing disease in the U.S. Therefore, it is prudent that urgent measures are adhered to ensure that this state is reversed. Even as the efforts geared at ensuring reduction of the diseases are adopted, various challenges such as stigma and lack of rapport between the medical practitioners and the people, and lack of trust in screening hinder the intervention efforts of preventing increased cases of cancer among the African American men. Therefore, various stakeholders have the obligation of joining their hands together to help alleviate the increasing rates of cancer. These men should be advised on the right diets that they should feed on. Moreover, they also should be advised on the need to be positive about screening and stop clinging on their cultural beliefs. Other prevention measures or strategies to help in reduction of these cases of cancer among men are ensuring annual screening processes and survivor campaigns. Media, community and the health practitioners should also team together to campaign and create awareness on the importance of taking the first initiative to go for screening. I am optimistic that if the government, stakeholders and the men take the initiative, the case of prostate cancer will be managed and this disease will no longer claim the lives of people as it currently does.

Works Cited

American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures for African Americans, 2009-2010. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2009. Print.

Arras-Boyd, Rita, Boyd, Roger, and Gaehle Kay. Reaching Men at Highest Risk for Undetected Prostate Cancer, International Journal of Men’s Health, 8.2(2011):16-128. Print.

Cathy, Meade, Calvo, Arlene, Rivera, Marlene and Baer Roberta. Focus Groups in the Design of Prostate Cancer Screening Information for Hispanic Farm workers and African American Men, Oncology Nursing Forum, 30.6(2003): 967-975. Print.

Chan, Edward. Promoting informed decision making about prostate cancer screening. Comprehensive Therapy, 27.3(2001):195-201. Print.

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